Rethinking Cotton: Why Biodiversity Matters More Than Ever in Cotton Cultivation

CURRENT LANDSCAPE: Cotton is grown on around 35 million hectares globally, covering 2.5% of arable land. While smallholders produce most of the cotton, large farms dominate industrial methods. Their differing practices result in distinct biodiversity impacts, from chemical overuse on small farms to habitat simplification and landscape-level effects from large operations.

• Smallholders often lack training and resources, leading to misapplication of agrochemicals and poor soil management.
• Largescale farms use mechanisation, monocultures and aerial chemical spraying, affecting biodiversity across wide areas.
• Australia has shown that large farms can coordinate integrated pest management effectively, offering scalable models.
• Brazil, with less land under cotton than the US, applies more pesticides—highlighting the need for regulatory balance.
• On-farm biodiversity varies by region, with some large farms taking proactive steps to mitigate impact.

YES, BUT: While biodiversity-enhancing methods like organic and regenerative farming may lower yields in the short term, the long-term benefits often outweigh losses. Improved soil health, reduced input costs, and better pest control can stabilise yields and improve farmer incomes over time—especially with institutional support and financial incentives.

• Voluntary sustainability cotton outperformed conventional yields in 11 countries, but lagged in 17 others.
• Lower input costs and price premiums from organic farming can offset temporary yield drops.
• Better extension services are needed to help smallholders manage the transition effectively.
• Without biodiversity, long-term yields from conventional farming are also at risk due to soil and ecosystem degradation.
• Supporting early transition costs is crucial to achieve both yield security and biodiversity outcomes.

WORTH NOTING: Transitioning to biodiversity-friendly cotton farming requires financial, institutional and technological investment, particularly for smallholders. It also demands regulatory oversight to curb agrochemical misuse and enforce sustainable water and land management practices. Brands and retailers have a critical role in providing funding and incentives to drive meaningful change.

• Farmers often need up to three years for organic practices to show full benefits, requiring bridge support.
• Agrochemical companies’ influence on policy can hinder biodiversity efforts, especially in markets like Brazil.
• Water mismanagement can cause devastating biodiversity loss, as seen in the Aral Sea and Australia’s Lower Darling River.
• Policies such as crop rotation mandates can backfire if not managed carefully, as shown in Türkiye.
• Coordinated pest control strategies across neighbouring small farms can significantly reduce pesticide use.

THE RECOMMENDATIONS: The cotton industry’s shift to biodiversity-enhancing practices depends on committed action from all supply chain actors. This includes direct investment, stronger farmer support, targeted regulation and integrated sustainability frameworks. Transitioning successfully will require both technical training and financial support, particularly for smallholders and low-resource regions.

• Retailers and brands should go beyond certified sourcing by funding farmers' shift to nature-positive methods.
• Standards systems must invest in traceability tools and biodiversity metrics while ensuring farmer participation.
• Governments should prioritise public research on cotton seeds, crop combinations and alternative pest controls.
• Farmer organisations should train members in sustainable methods and support inter-farm cooperation on pest control.
• Civil society and multi-stakeholder initiatives must amplify smallholder voices and facilitate equitable solutions.

THE REPORT: The report is titled Cotton and Biodiversity and was published on 15 July. Its primary author is Tamar Hoek (Solidaridad Europe), with additional text contributions from Ioana Betieanu (OCA), Rakshanda Bhat (OCA), Agnes Molgaard (Solidaridad), and Sarah Oxley (The Green Pencil), who also served as editor.

• The publication was reviewed by Action for Social Advancement, Better Cotton, IKEA, Organic Cotton Accelerator, Pesticide Action Network UK, and Sarah Compson, Director - Standards Innovation at the Soil Association.
• It was made with support from the RECLAIM Sustainability! programme, a collaboration between the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Solidaridad.